Table 3 Associations between independent variables and persistent loneliness, HART (2015–2017)

Age (in years)

45–64

≥ 65 or more

1 (Reference)

1.04 (0.76 to 1.42)

---

Sex

Female

Male

1 (Reference)

0.64 (0.47 to 0.87)**

1 (Reference)

0.71 (0.49 to 1.03)

Education

≤Elementary

>Elementary

1 (Reference)

0.72 (0.45 to 1.14)

---

Annual income

High

Low

1 (Reference)

1.19 (0.87 to 1.63)

---

Marital status

Married/cohabiting

Divorced/sep./never married

Widowed

1 (Reference)

1.03 (0.63 to 1.70)

1.42 (1.02 to 1.97)*

1 (Reference)

0.78 (0.44 to 1.38)

1.16 (0.79 to 1.70)

Religion

Muslim or other

Buddhist

1 (Reference)

1.38 (0.87 to 2.18)

---

Region

Central

North

Northeast

South

1 (Reference)

0.67 (0.45 to 0.99)*

0.77 (0.47 to 1.28)

0.32 (0.21 to 0.49)***

1 (Reference)

0.74 (0.47 to 1.14)

0.87 (0.49 to 1.54)

0.40 (0.25 to 0.65)***

Social participation

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

0.83 (0.45 to 1.56)

---

Alcohol use

Never

Past

Current

1 (Reference)

0.75 (0.42 to 1.33)

0.61 (0.35 to 1.07)

---

Smoking tobacco use

Never

Past

Current

1 (Reference)

0.90 (0.51 to 1.57)

0.74 (0.44 to 1.24)

---

Physical activity

≥ 150 min/week

< 150 min/week

1 (Reference)

0.72 (0.47 to 1.11)

---

Body mass index

Normal

Under

Overweight

Obesity

1 (Reference)

0.98 (0.59 to 1.64)

0.57 (0.34 to 0.97)*

1.06 (0.72 to 1.56)

1 (Reference)

0.85 (0.49 to 1.46)

0.58 (0.33 to 1.01)

0.95 (0.63 to 1.44)

Activities of Daily Living disability

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

0.97 (0.55 to 1.69)

---

Accident

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

1.30 (0.85 to 1.99)

---

Fall worry refrain from social activities

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

0.97 (0.64 to 1.48)

---

Self-rated physical health status

High

Low

1 (Reference)

1.79 (1.27 to 2.53)***

1 (Reference)

1.91 (1.26 to 2.88)**

Depressive symptoms

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

1.07 (0.76 to 1.50)

---

Chronic conditions

Cardiovascular disease

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

1.77 (0.97 to 2.23)

---

Hypertension

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

1.13 (0.83 to 1.54)

---

Endocrine (diabetes)

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

1.27 (0.86 to 1.88)

---

Musculoskeletal

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

1.33 (0.82 to 2.17)

---

Liver or kidney diseases

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

0.80 (0.33 to 1.92)

---

Respiratory

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

1.16 (0.29 to 4.66)

---

Cancer

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

1.55 (0.43 to 3.88)

---

Sensorial

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

1.34 (0.94 to 1.93)

---

Neurological

No

Yes

1 (Reference)

1.29 (0.43 to 3.88)

---

Number of chronic conditions

Chronic conditions

0

1

2

3 or more

1 (Reference)

1.27 (0.87 to 1.84)

1.21 (0.78 to 1.86)

1.86 (1.15 to 3.01)*

1 (Reference)^a

1.23 (0.83 to 1.82)

1.21 (0.76 to 1.91)

1.78 (1.07 to 2.98)*